How can a single event reshape a nation’s memory and conscience? The answer can be found in the Massacre of Nanjing, which unfolded in Nanjing, China, in 1937. The Massacre of Nanjing unfolded during the Second Sino-Japanese War. To fully understand this incident, we must revisit the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War.
By the mid-1930s, Japan had become a formidable military power in East Asia, having already seized Manchuria (a colony of China), Korea, and Formosa (present-day Taiwan). To truly dominate Eastern Asia, Japan needed to conquer China.
Japan wanted to seize China for its natural resources, along with its military and economic power. They required China for their imperial ambitions of uniting all of East Asia.
Under agreements made at the beginning of the century, Japanese and Chinese troops were stationed in modest numbers on the border between Manchukuo (formerly Manchuria) and China. Troops from both sides were stationed near the Marco Polo Bridge, also known as Lugouqiao (盧溝橋).
On the night of July 7, 1937, a small Japanese troop demanded entry to the walled city of Wanping, Beijing, under the pretext of searching for one of their missing soldiers. The Chinese refused the Japanese entry; shortly after, a shot was heard. China made attempts to settle the incident, while Japan used the incident as an excuse to launch a full-scale invasion of China.
Ten days after the incident, the Chairman of the Military Commission of the Republic of China declared China’s resistance against Japanese forces (Academy of Chinese Studies, n.d.).
Battle of Beiping- Tianjin
Japanese troops stormed Beiping (now known as Beijing), ultimately leading to the Battle of Beiping-Tianjin. Relations between the Chinese 29th Route Army and the Japanese China Garrison Army have been hostile since 1936 (Warfare History Network, 2022).
Chinese General Song Zheyuan commanded the 29th and 27th Army Divisions into war against Lieutenant General Kanichiro Tashiro, who was later replaced by Lieutenant General Kiyoshi Katsuki upon Tashiro’s death.
Peace negotiations between General Song Zheyuan and General Kiyoshi Katuski happened in Nanjing, the current capital of China at the time. The negotiations ended in failure on July 18th. On July 25th, the IJA 20th Division arrived, intensifying clashes in an attempt to secure strategic ground around Beiping (Warfare History Network, 2022).
Tongzhou Incident
The Tongzhou Incident was an act of unjustified violence against Japanese and Korean citizens by Chinese soldiers, leading to immense amounts of tension between the two countries.
Japanese Conservatives in government still strongly opposed war until the Tongzhou Incident. The Tongzhou Incident occurred on July 29, 1937, when Chinese soldiers from the East Hebei Autonomous Government led an assault on Japanese and Korean citizens residing in the small town of Tongzhou.
There were Japanese troops stationed in Tongzhou to protect Chinese citizens at the time; but they were deployed to Nanyuan shortly before the incident. Only a small unit of inexperienced soldiers remained. Information surrounding the incident is unclear, but it’s suggested that 117 Japanese and 106 Korean civilians died.
The Battle for Beiping- Tianjin
The Battle of Beiping was the first battle in the Second Sino-Japanese War; this battle overwhelmed Chinese forces against Japanese forces. On July 28th, the Japanese 20th Division launched precise and coordinated airstrikes against major districts in Beiping, such as Nanyuan and Beyuan.
The fight for the Nanyuan district in Beiping was titled one of the deadliest among the entire battle of Beiping- Tianjin.
The Chinese 29th Route Army, led by General Song was primarily responsible for defending the Beiping-Tianjin region. It consisted of four main infantry divisions—the 37th, 38th, 132nd, and 143rd—along with the 9th Cavalry Division and two independent brigades.
Using information given to them by Chinese traitor Yuguio Pan, Japanese General Kiyoshi Katsuki had his enemies’ plans and strategies at their fingertips. Katsuki launched an attack on the 132nd Division still on their way to Nanyuan and launched a successful ambush near Tuanhe, completely destroyed the Chinese regiments. Zhao attempted to rescue his troops using the third regiment, although he failed.
On July 28, 1937, at Nanyuan south of Beiping, General Zhao Dengyu, commander of the 132nd Division of the National Revolutionary Army’s 29th Army, led a determined defense against superior Japanese forces. Despite orders to retreat toward Beiping, his troops were overwhelmed by Japanese infantry, artillery, and air attacks, resulting in Zhao’s death and the collapse of the Chinese position (Warfare History Network, 2022).
Meanwhile, Japanese troops planned strategic attacks surrounding the city of Tianjin. They captured central areas such as the Peiping- Tianjin railroad and the city of Langfang, which is situated between Tianjin and Beiping. The Japanese surrounded and isolated Chinese troops, and tightened control around Tianjin. On July 30th, the city of Tianjin was officially declared under Japanese rule.
Facing mountains of losses from the collapse of Tianjin, General Song and the mayor of Beiping had no choice but to call for the retreat of Chinese soldiers from the city to preserve any remaining strength. The cities of Beiping and Tianjin had fallen under Japanese rule.
Battle of Shanghai
The Battle of Shanghai truly displayed to Japan and the rest of the world, just how stubborn China could be. With Tianjin and Beiping out of the way, Japan’s new target was Shanghai. Shanghai was China’s principal port, business capital and financial powerhouse. Many foreign officials and countries relied on Shanghai to do business with China, particularly the allies.
Military Commander Chiang Kai-Shek, expected the threat to Shanghai. His suspicions were confirmed during the Oyama Incident.
The Oyama Incident occurred on August 9th, 1937, when First Lieutenant Isao Oyama of the Japanese Naval Special Landing Forces was shot and killed by Chinese Peace Preservation Corps soldiers at the gate of Hongqiao Airport in Shanghai. He was illegally caught trying to enter Shanghai (Battle of Shanghai 1937, n.d.).
As tensions escalated, Western powers attempted to convene due to industrial and commercial interests in Shanghai. Although both sides charged at each other with violations of treaties they had previously signed (Paulose, 2013).
Commander Chiang deployed the 87th and 88th divisions, which were far better trained and equipped than other divisions in the army. They were trained using foreign methods, particularly German methods. Expecting the same performance they saw previously, the Japanese underestimated their opponents badly.
Japanese troops stormed into Shanghai on August 13, 1937. The far better equipped Chinese soldiers caught the Japanese by surprise and a stalemate was held between the two sides. The commander of the defense of Shanghai was able to cleverly maneuver through the stalemate, giving the Chinese a temporary victory.
The 36th Division arrived shortly after to fortify the city and reinforce the 87th Division, although due to lack of tank-infantry coordination their attempt was unsuccessful. Unfortunately, most of their fallen men were the most experienced (Pacific Atrocities Education, n.d.).
After Japanese reinforcements arrived, the Chinese troops were unable to maintain their stance within the city. The city of Shanghai later succumbed to the Japanese on November 26, 1937. Although the battle ended in a loss it showed to the Japanese, and the rest of the world, that the Chinese were not going down without a fight.
The Battle of Pingxingguan
The Battle of Pingxingguan was known as China’s first major victory in WW2. The Battle took place in the Pingxing Pass; the Eighth Route Army (115th Division) led by Commanders Lin Bao and Nie Rongzhen against the 5th Division and 21st Brigade from the Japanese Imperial Army led by Itagaki Seishiro (Battle of Pingxingguan- China’s First Victory in World War 2, n.d.)
To set the scene for you, the Chinese were humiliated and seen as an extremely weak force in the eyes of Japan and the whole world. Many Japanese people assumed the weak China would crumble into the hands of Japanese Imperialism sooner or later. However this battle would show to the world just how persistent the Chinese people were (Pacific Atrocities Education, n.d.).
On September 22, 1937, a unit of Japanese soldiers seized the Dongpaochi area, alarmingly close to the Pingxingguan region. The commander of the 115th Division, suggested they take advantage of the high ground and advantageous terrain. They planned to ambush the Japanese troops on their way up the Pingxing Pass. So on September 23rd, 1937, the main forces of the 115th division made their way about 15 kilometers southeast of Pingxingguan, to await further orders (Liu & Huang, 2025).
The Chinese were able to ambush the Japanese forces as they entered the ambush zone. A fierce battle ensued as the soldiers of the 115th Division fought fiercely. Fighter planes above dared not to detonate due to the close proximity between their own men and the Chinese. Although a small Japanese unit was able to climb the western part of the Pingxingguan Pass. The Chinese 115th Division was able to maneuver and cut off their supply lines.
The Battle of the Pingxingguan Pass ended in Chinese victory, boosting morale and leading to mass production of propaganda between both sides.
The Battle of Nanjing
Nanjing (Nanking) was China’s capital, and a new target for Japan. After taking over Shanghai, Japanese soldiers immediately laid eyes on Nanjing, quickly advancing there. General Chiang Kai-shek had to come to a decision, use the remaining of his forces to defend Nanjing, or save the people of Nanjing ; he chose to save the people, symbolising China’s resilience. Unfortunately, Chinese forces soon realised the battle was futile as their opponents were far more advanced and better equipped.
Commander Tang Shengzhi suggested protecting the city with trench networks, machine-gun nests, and artillery positions, however it was no match for the modern tanks and artillery the Japanese brought (Battle of Nanjing: December 1-13, 1937, n.d.).
The battle officially began on December 1st, 1937, while it took until December 8th for Japanese forces to surround Nanjing and block all escape routes. The Nanjing Garrison force, the military division responsible for Nanjing, lacked proper resources and training. So by December 13th, Nanjing had fallen entirely to Japanese rule.
This marked the end of Japan’s journey to conquer China but the beginning of one of history’s most tragic episodes (Battle of Nanjing: December 1-13, 1937, n.d.).
The Massacre of Nanjing
The Massacre of Nanjing (Nanking) was a six week period following the capture of Nanjing by the Japanese Imperial Army. The Massacre of Nanjing was known as one of the bloodiest war atrocities committed during World War 2.
After seizing the city of Nanjing, the commanding general of the Japanese Central China Front Army, Matsui Iwane ordered the IJA to completely destroy the city.
The Japanese first went after the 90,000 Chinese soldiers that surrendered. To the Japanese, surrendering was a lowly, less than human act. The Chinese soldiers were taken to the outskirts of Nanjing, lined up and fired into. Newly recruited soldiers bragged about how many Chinese soldiers they killed that day, without regard for human life. Pictures of Japanese soldiers smiling and posing with the severed heads of Chinese soldiers exist. Other soldiers were tied, had gasoline poured on them and burned alive.
An author of a best selling book on the Massacre of Nanjing, Iris Chang, stated “One history estimated that if the dead from Nanjing were to link hands they would stretch to the city of Nanjing to the city of Changzhou, spanning a distance of some 200 miles. Their bodies would fill 2,500 railroad cars, stacked on top of each other; these bodies would reach the height of a 75 story building,” (aini, 2025, 0:49).
Within the first two months of their unwelcome stay, Japanese Imperial Soldiers had killed an estimate of 300,000 civilians. They massacred families, burned buildings, looted ancient Chinese goods.
It said that “The streets of Nanking were said to literally have run red with blood,” (The History Place, n.d, paragraph 9 ).
Notorious and gruesome crimes filled Nanjing, as well as bodies littering the streets. It is said that 20,000 and 80,000 women were brutally raped and tortured, including young girls and elderly women. The bodies of the women were left out in the open, their dignity not even with them in their last moments (HISTORY.com Editors, 2025).
Although there was a tiny sliver of hope, the Safety Zone. The Safety Zone was a zone where the Japanese would not come. Established by twenty Americans and Europeans residing in Nanjing and led by John Rabe, it was meant to be a safe zone. John Rabe negotiated with Japanese soldiers and created a Safe Zone for all Chinese citizens.
The Safety Zone offered refuge to upwards of 20,000 people (Facing History & Ourselves, 2018). On numerous occasions, they risked their lives to intervene between a soldier and a potential victim.
The question of why the Japanese acted the way they did in Nanjing seems to never have a true answer. Some say it was the racism that has existed between them. While others argue it was because of the losses faced in previous battles such as Shanghai and Pingxingguan.
Comfort Women
The Massacre of Nanjing wouldn’t have been the only time crimes against women have been committed by Japanese forces in WW2. The Comfort women were girls and women forced into sexual slavery by the Imperial Japanese Armed Forces in occupied territories. The women came from all over Southeast Asia, although they were primarily Korean or Chinese. The inhumane and vile abuse they faced along with the unhygienic conditions they were enslaved in led to most of the Comfort Women dying before the end of WW2. It is estimated by the end of WW2, 90% of Comfort Women were deceased (Blakemore, 2025).
In honor of the Comfort Women, statues honoring the women were built around the world. The statues often were of girls in traditional clothing, innocently playing. The first ever statue honoring the women was built in front of the Japanese embassy in South Korea. There are over 80 statues in South Korea and dozens around the world. A museum in Taiwan opened up, dedicated to remembering Taiwanese Comfort Women.
Recently, Osaka has cut its sister city ties with San Francisco over a Comfort Women statue being built in Chinatown. The two cities have held the title of ‘sister cities’ for over sixty years. The statue depicts three young women, holding hands. One of them is from Korea, the other from China and the last girl from the Philippines. Despite the protests from Osaka, San Francisco is keeping the statue (BBC News, 2018).
The Scar Left on China
With the help of the allied forces, China was able to regain back all of its land, including Manchuria. While the wounds and scars left on the country after the war were brutal. The country had lost a huge chunk of its population, particularly in Nanjing.
China lost its industrial and financial base in eastern China, along with most of its modern industries, railways, and ports. Along with the cost of war, China’s economy crippled. Buildings and Infrastructure were destroyed from all the bombings, national treasures were looted. Famines, epidemics, civil unrest and farmland flooding were inevitable. Along with political turmoil that swallowed the country soon after the war (Britannica Editors, n.d.).
The Massacre of Nanjing stands as a reminder of how a single event can reshape a nation’s memory and conscience. The crimes committed in China during the Second Sino-Japanese War, including the battles leading up to the Nanjing Massacre, were inhumane. The war crimes committed in Nanjing scarred China forever. However, the strength shown in the Battle of Shanghai and Pingxingguan resembles Chinese resilience. This event reshaped its moral conscience and changed how the nation remembers the past, and confronts foreign aggression. The Massacre of Nanjing stands as a reminder that a single event, like this, can forge enduring lessons and a shared sense of identity for an entire country.
Written By: Eesha Kondapalli
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