American by birth, HOMER BAZALEEL HULBERT (January 26, 1863 – August 5, 1949)
He was born in the United States, yet some would have thought he had Korean roots. Long ago, before the existence of K-pop, K-dramas, and Hallyu wave, there was a man with a genuine and selfless love for Korea. A love so true that he made a striking statement before his death and this was to be buried on Korean soil rather than his hometown. At first, he came to Korea as a teacher, but gradually, Korea transformed from his “place of work” to his “home.” With the help of a tutor who barely understood English language, he became fluent with the Korean language in a short time. This man was more than just a teacher. He was an educator, a missionary, a historian, a journalist, and a Korean independence activist who became deeply involved in the concerns of Korea. He taught at some of Korea’s early modern schools and contributed to the development of Korean studies, and in 1891, he published Saminpilji, Korea’s first modern-style textbook written in Hangeul and also published English-language works including The History of Korea (1905) and The Passing of Korea (1906). What made this man truly memorable was the many sacrifices he made for the Korea. Most people fight for the freedom of their own homeland, but he risked his own life and stood for the independence of another country. For this, I see him as a Famous and Memorable Character. Let me tell you about Homer Hulbert, the American who loved Korea too much to fight for it and rest forever in its ground.
Born in 1863 in New Haven, Vermont, Homer Hulbert was the son of Calvin Butler Hulbert and Mary Elizabeth Woodward Hulbert. For four years, he served as President of Middlebury College. Growing up, he developed a deep sense of curiosity and his sister explained his attitude towards reading by describing his father’s library as a “playground” for him. After high school, Hulbert spent a year studying at St. Johnsbury Academy, and in 1884, the U.S Commissioner of Education, John Eaton, reached out to Hulbert’s father, and asked him to send one of his sons to teach in the first Western-style modern school in Joseon. After being recommended by his father, Hulbert eagerly waited for this phase of his life to begin, and during his wait, he developed his knowledge about Korea and stated in a memoir he wrote that from this period onward, Korea became “the absorbing topic” of his life. John Eaton invited Homer Hulbert, George W. Gilmore, and Dalzell A. Bike to Washington, D.C., and informed them about their teaching duties. On May 21, 1886, the three teachers left San Francisco, and on July 2, Hulbert arrived at Jemulpo (present-day Incheon).
On September 26, 1886, the Joseon court officially opened the Yukyeong-gongwon (육영공원), which is The Royal College. This first ever state-run modern school taught English reading, writing and spelling as well as grammar, geography and mathematics with 35 students making up the inaugural cohort, among them were many officials that had passed the gwageo (과거), which is the civil service exams which led to the school’s prestige. As a teacher, Hulbert maintained solid relationships with his students, often introducing them to foreign items such as typewriters, violins and even organizing picnics near Dongdaemun (동대문; East Gate).
In a span of 4 days, after arriving in Joseon, Hulbert had learned to read and write the Hangeul and by December 1886, 2 months after he landed, he slowly adjusted to teaching students in Korean. He also learned more about Korean culture by collecting folk tales, traditional games, and closely observed street life and material culture. In 1889, Hulbert published “The Korean Language” in the New York Tribune. This article contained the earliest systematic introductions of the Korean language and writing system to Western readers and is seen to be the first scholarly discussion of Hangeul published in an international newspaper, which highlighted structural features of the Korean alphabet and its phonetic organization. He described the vowel system and showed that Korean was a well-structured and systematic language. By 1890, Hulbert had engaged and actively participated in Seoul’s foreign intellectual community. Later, Hulbert returned to the United States in 1888 to marry Mary Belle Hanna in the summer and shortly after they both returned to Joseon where Mary Hulbert quickly adapted and adjusted to life in Seoul.
One of Hulbert’s most important contributions to promoting Hangeul was the publication of Saminpilji in 1891. Saminpilji was a 170-page word reference book and was the first ever textbook written in Hangeul, with it’s title meaning “Knowledge Necessary For All”. Going beyond regular geography textbooks, Saminpilji also explained each country’s astronomy, government, social structure, customs, industry, economy, education, religion, and military strength. Hulbert began preparing this manuscript in early times of 1889 and spent almost a year drafting it. Spending approximately 300 dollars to print an estimated 2,000 copies, he personally sponsored the project, and the finished book covered of 9 maps, with 6 of them being hand-coloured to indicate capitals, rivers and mountain ranges. The creation of this was a landmark achievement in Korean geographical publishing and the first major cartographic work released in about 30 years after the creation of Daedongyeojido.
After unsuccessful negotiations to renew the agreement between the Joseon court and U.S. legation, Hulbert left Joseon in December 1891. Returning to Joseon as a Methodist missionary at the invitation of Henry G. Appenzeller in October 1893, his missionary work involved overseeing Trilingual Press (삼문출판사), teaching at Paichai Hakdang (배재학당), and serving as a pastor at Baldwin Chapel (동대문교회). The Trilingual Press (삼문출판사) was a Methodist mission press that published materials in Korean, Chinese, and English. As the director, Hulbert imported a modern printing press from Cincinnati, and upgraded the operation, making it one of the most productive publishing institutions in Korea. Between October 1893 and August 1894, the press published more than 2 million pages of religious leaflets, pamphlets and educational materials. It also produced influential periodicals and texts such as The Independent, The Pilgrim’s Progress (천로역정) and The Korean Repository, as well as 50,000 cholera-prevention posters for the Joseon government. The Korean Repository was the first monthly magazine in Joseon and was founded in 1892 by the Methodist Church, and from 1895, Hulbert served alongside Appenzeller, George H. as his co-editor and the business manager.
After the assassination of Queen Min inside Gyeongbokgung by Japanese agents on October 8, 1895, Hulbert, along with several fellow missionaries were appointed by the U.S. legation to guard the king and maintain a continuous watch at his beside. After attending Queen Min’s 2-day funeral at the personal invitation of Emperor Gojong, Hulbert published his observations in an article titled “The Burial of an Oriental Empress,” which appeared in the San Francisco Chronicle on January 9, 1898.
In winter of 1896, Hulbert was invited by Philip Jaisohn to take charge of normal education in Joseon and in May 1897, Hulbert was appointed head of Hanseong Normal School and was simultaneously appointed as an adviser to the Ministry of Education. In January, 1901, Hulbert felt the need for English publication, and so he launched The Korea Review, a monthly English-language magazine, and personally oversaw all editorial and operational aspects of the publication as the editor-in-chief. The Korea Review focused on introducing Korean history and culture, but also covered domestic news. Hulbert also played a central role in the establishment of the Korean YMCA and was appointed chairman of the YMCA Foundation Advisory Committee in Seoul. In 1902, he was made the director of YMCA’s Asia Region. The Korean YMCA was officially established in October 1903 and became an incubator for nationalist leaders and independence activists.
After the Russo-Japanese war, Japanese control over Korea increased even though Korea declared neutrality signed the Korea-Japan Agreement of 1904 (한일의정서). Emperor Gojong authorised the dispatch of an envoy in 1905 to appeal directly to U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt. Hulbert was appointed as Emperor Gojong’s special envoy and resigned from teaching to undertake this mission. He secured a personal letter from the Emperor addressed to President Roosevelt in which the Emperor warned that Japan is violating the 1904 agreement. Hulbert preserved the full text of this letter in “Hulbert’s Manuscripts.”
In early October 1905, Hulbert informed Edwin V. Morgan, the U.S. minister of Korea, of his journey and requested that the Emperor letter be forwarded to Washington through the legation’s diplomatic pouch in order to prevent Japanese interception. After Hulbert left Seoul on October 21, 1905, through Busan and Yokohama to San Francisco, he suspected that he was being monitored by the Japanese agents and his suspicions were confirmed. On November 17, 1905, pro-Japanese ministers were compelled into signing the Eulsa Coerced Protectorate Treaty (을사늑약), thereby, ridding Korea of their diplomatic sovereignty and establishing the Residency-General in Seoul. Unaware of these, Hulbert landed in San Francisco and arrived at Washington D.C. on November 17 where he was granted assistance from his former classmate and associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the District of Colombia, Wendell P. Stafford, who helped Justin securing access to the White House. Although Hulbert attempted to present the Emperor’s letter personally to President Roosevelt, but was refused with no reasons, also, he faced several failed appeals to the State Department.
On December 11, 1905, Hulbert received news from Emperor Gojong declaring the treaty null and void on the grounds of being concluded under pressure and without imperial consent. Hulbert passed on this news to the State Department where it was summarily filed with no further discussion. Recognising that diplomatic channels have failed, Hulbert resorted to the press. In mid-December 1905, the New York Times released several interviews based on Hulbert’s statement detailing Emperor Gojong’s protest, the pressure used to force the signing of the treaty and the reports of Japan’s control and oppression in Korea. He emphasised that the Emperor was being held under confinement and that the treaty was forced at gunpoint. He last stated that Japan had misinterpreted Korean public opinion, arguing that Korea’s last hope was to appeal directly to American public sentiment. In May 22, Hulbert returned to Korea, strongly disappointed by American diplomacy but was still very much determined and committed to standing up for Korea’s cause. Shortly before leaving for Korea, he wrote a letter to his parents and stated that he would dedicate himself to “waking up the spirit of Koreans” and “fighting against all opposing forces.” Such determination!
The publication of The Passing of Korea (1906) was Hulbert’s most direct response to the Eulsa Coerced Protectorate Treaty as he viewed it as America’s failure to uphold its treaty commitments to Korea. This was a 473-page volume was published in New York Doubleday, Page & Company and in London by William Heinemann. This way Hulbert, intended to reach a broad and understandable readership. He praised Koreans for their intelligence, hospitality and adaptability but he also candidly criticised their internal weaknesses, such as strong conservatism, corruption, political division and elite self-interest which he believed made Korea more vulnerable. The book attracted massive attention in the Western press. Reviews in outlets including The New York Times and The London Tribune described his account as trustworthy and supported his narrative regarding it as accurate and reliable.
Hulbert also spoke about Japan’s removal of the ten-story Gyeongcheonsa pagoda, a Goryoe-period monument originally built in 1348 at the Gyeongcheonsa Temple. Despite Emperor Gojong’s resistance, Japanese official, Tanaka Mitsuaki ordered for the pagoda’s demolition and transport to Japan. Hulbert visited the site to inspect the incident and in March 1907, he recorded the remains of the already destroyed pagoda, gathered testimonies from eyewitnesses and local residents, and captured the physical evidence at site. He reported his documentations in The Japan Chronicle and titled it “Vandalism in Korea” arguing the abusive act by Japan’s protectorate under Korea and called the Japanese government asking for the pagoda’s return. He later spoke about the issue in international forums like the second International Peace Conference at The Hague in 1907. After several global criticism, the pagoda was returned to Korea in 1918.
Hulbert arrived in The Hague on July 10, 1907, just after after the Korean envoys were ignored and denied official recognition by both the conference authorities and the Dutch government. One of Hulbert’s must significant interventions during this time was deciding the cooperation of W. T. Stead, the editor of Courier de la Conference. The Courier printed and published the Gonggosa in French language, enabling it’s wide circulation among the international press. With the help of Stead, Hulbert also spoke to the Peace Club, a group of journalists, where he supported the arguments of the Korean envoys and warned that continued injustice would lead to great resistance in Korea. Shortly after, Hulbert travelled to the United States to continue his efforts in influencing American policy and also spoke publicly against Japanese rule. Unable to return to Korea due to restrictions from the Japanese authorities, be eventually settled abroad in Springfield, Massachusetts. Mrs. Hulbert as well took part in these public efforts, and in an interview with The New York Tribune in 1910, she described the daily violence and humiliation faced by the Koreans.
From 1911, Hulbert reached a more global audience through the Chautauqua. This is one of the most renowned adult education networks in the early twentieth-century United States. His lectures which often focused on Korea’s recent history imperial politics gave him a public platform for more than a decade. He used this opportunity to keep Korea in the minds of Americans who knew little about the peninsula. He carried on these lecture tours into the 1920s, addressing various Korean independence organisations, such as The League of Friends of Korea, The Korean Commission to America and Europe, and The United Korean Committee in America. On April 20, 1920, Hulbert and Syngman Rhee gave a joint lecture at Boston University on the principles of peace.
In August 1909, he returned to Korea to access conditions under Japanese rule after his abrupt departure in 1907. Knowing that his reappearance could bring consequences, he drafted a will for his wife before leaving Springfield. When he arrived, he went directly to the U.S. consulate to request protection, and throughout his two-month stay, he was under constant Japanese surveillance. Hulbert was deeply disturbed to discover that Japanese authorities had confiscated and destroyed all copies of his Korean-language history books. And the assassination of Itō Hirobumi in Harbin on October 26, 1909 led to rumours and press speculation surrounding concerns for Hulbert’s safety.
In 1915-1916, after Theodore Roosevelt criticised U.S. for being too passive toward Germany’s actions in Belgium, Hulbert used this comparison and argued that Roosevelt had failed even more significantly in Korea. He published his letters in The New York Times, which eventually sparked political debate and influenced congressional decision of U.S.-Korea correspondence from the era of Japan takeover. During the period of late 1918 and early 1919, Hulbert worked with U.S.-based activists who were organizing petitions and planning strategies for international appeal. He journeyed to France in late 1918 where he collaborated with Kim Kyu-sik, the official representative of the Korean Provisional Government, for the Paris Peace Conference. Although, their efforts did not achieve formal recognition, Hulbert’s efforts helped raise to greater international awareness of Korea’s situation under Japanese rule.
After he returned to the United States from Paris around mid-1919. Hulbert continued advocating for Korea in Washington, D.C. and later published a statement titling it “What About Korea?” With the help of Senator Selden P. Spencer of Missouri, the publication was forwarded to the U.S. Senate Committee in Foreign Relations and further entered into the Congressional Record in August 1919. This publication was framed the March First Movement as a nationwide, nonviolent expression of the people’s will and argued that Japan responded with systematic repression and violence. Hulbert used historical narrative, legal treaty-based arguments, and detailed reports of abuses to argue that Japanese rule over Korea had no legitimacy. American newspapers covered Hulbert’s submission, contributing to reintroduce the Korea to U.S. public discourse. Although the document failed to produce an immediate policy change, it highlighted Hulbert’s continued formal efforts to introduce the Korean issue before American political institutions.
Hulbert engaged as a speaker at a Korean Liberty Conference, which took place from February 27 to March 1, 1942 at the Lafayette Hotel in Washington, D.C.. He did this to honour the 23rd anniversary of the March 1st movement. This conference was organised by Korean American group which represented the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in Chongqing to seek U.S. validation of the Provisional Government. In his remarks, Hulbert warned that if Korean independence was not restored after the war, it will trigger to future international conflict. He also stressed that the of the United States had a responsibility in “leading” Korea to independence.
During the summer of 1949, Hulbert revived an invitation from President Syngman Rhee to return to Korea and attend the Liberation Day on August 15 as a state guest. The invitation represented the culmination of Hulbert’s decades of advocacy for Korean independence. He left Springfield on July 4 and journeyed to Washington, D.C.. His granddaughter later recalled that the family saw the journey as one which he might never return from, yet they sent him off with quiet happiness, knowing how eagerly he had hoped for this moment. On July 8, Hulbert reached the Korean Embassy in Washington, carrying a formal state invitation. When reporters asked him how it felt to returning after forty years, he answered, “I would rather be buried in Korea than in Westminster Abbey.”
Hulbert arrived in Incheon and was welcomed by a crowd of government officials and large number of Koreans who eagerly came to see him. According to eyewitness accounts, a military band was playing as dignitaries landed. With support, Hulbert stepped onto Korean soil, and he murmured “Oh—Jemulpo”, and then bent to kiss the ground. However, the emotional impact of his return was overshadowed by physical exhaustion. The long journey had left him seriously weakened, and he was admitted to a missionary hospital the next day. Over the next few days that, President Rhee, former students, senior officials, and long-time associates came to visit him. Hulbert died on August 5, 1949 at the age of 86.
News of his death caused nationwide mourning. The Korean Cabinet, led by President Rhee announced seven-day period of national mourning and officially made August 9 a day of remembrance. A state funeral was arranged, and tributes came in from all over the country. In his eulogy, President Rhee encouraged the nation to carry on Hulbert’s legacy so that his contributions would not be forgotten. After the service, the funeral procession moved past Deoksugung Palace and the South Gate before continuing to Yanghwajin. Contemporary reports estimated that the procession drew more than 10,000 people.
In the years after his death, the Republic of Korea officially recognised Hulbert’s lifelong commitment to Korean independence. In 1950, after his death, he was awarded the Order of Merit for National Foundation (건국공로훈정). Following recognitions included the Order of Merit for Culture and Arts—Gold (금관문화훈장) in 2014 and the inaugural Seoul Arirang Award (서울아리랑상) in 2015.
Homer Hulbert proved that a person’s love for a country is not just determined by birthplace, but by sacrifice and loyalty. Today, he is remembered not only as a foreign educator, but as a true friend of Korea whose legacy continues to inspire generations.
By: Mercy Ime Archibong
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