Believed to have been introduced to Japan from the Asian continent between the 7th and 8th centuries, the biwa is a traditional stringed instrument that underwent a remarkably peculiar and unique evolutionary path within Japanese cultural history over the centuries.
The world’s oldest extant biwa, known as the Raden Shitan no Gogen Biwa (Five-Stringed Biwa of Red Sandalwood with Mother-of-Pearl Inlay), was brought to Japan from China during the 8th century and remains preserved in Nara, Japan. Nara served as the capital of Japan during the 8th century and is home to Tōdai-ji, a renowned Buddhist temple. Tōdai-ji is celebrated for housing the Great Buddha (Daibutsu), a colossal bronze statue standing approximately 15 meters tall, designated as a National Treasure and inscribed as a UNESCO World Cultural Heritage site in 1998, attracting visitors from across the globe. Located within the precincts of Tōdai-ji is the Shōsō-in, a massive raised-floor wooden storehouse measuring approximately 33 meters in length and 14 meters in height. Built originally to store important assets of Tōdai-ji, its collection expanded dramatically following the death of emperor Shōmu, who ordered the construction of the Great Buddha. His widow, the empress donated the emperor’s cherished personal belongings, including fine arts and crafts, toTōdai-ji, which were subsequently deposited into the Shōsō-in Repository. For more than 1,200 years, the Shōsō-in has miraculously survived natural disasters such as earthquakes, as well as the devastation of war, preserving its original structure and conveying priceless cultural treasures of that era down to the modern day.
According to the Imperial Household Agency, which manages the Shosoin today, the treasures housed within consist primarily of items imported from the Asian continent or crafted domestically in Japan during the 8th century, alongside historical documents. The surveyed items alone total an overwhelming figure of approximately 9,000 artifacts. Among this vast collection, one of the most celebrated masterworks is the aforementioned Raden Shitan no Gogen Biwa. I vividly remember being captivated by its beauty when I saw a photograph of it in the history textbook we used in elementary school, which inspired me to research the biwa.
I. Structure and Performance Technique
The historical roots of the biwa can be traced back to ancient Persia. From there, the instrument spread across Asia into China and India, eventually reaching Japan via China. The Arabic oud and the European lute share this exact same lineage. The biwa is a plucked chordophone featuring an egg-shaped wooden body strung with silk cords, played primarily using a wooden plectrum (bachi) shaped remarkably like a ginkgo leaf. A distinctive structural feature of the biwa is its neck (sorite), which bends backward at a sharp right angle at the top of the slender body. The body of the biwa is crafted by joining two hollowed-out wooden boards together. Mulberry wood is considered ideal for this, as it is extremely hard, highly durable, and excellent at transmitting sound. In earlier periods, precious woods such as red sandalwood, rosewood, and ebony were also used. The strings are made of silk.
Frets (ju) are placed along the neck to alter pitch, while the silk strings are tied and secured to tuning pegs mounted on the bent neck head. Although the number of strings and frets varies depending on the specific type of biwa, instruments are broadly categorized into four-string and five-string varieties. The strings are numbered sequentially from lowest to highest pitch as the first, second, third, and fourth strings. Unlike many other stringed instruments, every string on a biwa possesses a different thickness; the lowest-pitched first string is the thickest, with subsequent strings becoming progressively thinner. Furthermore, the combination of string count and fret count differs by type: four-string biwas typically feature four to five frets, whereas five-string biwas generally utilize five frets, with some employing six.
When performing, the player sits on the floor maintaining an upright posture with the instrument resting on their lap. The left hand supports the back of the neck while the fingers depress the strings either directly atop or between the frets. Holding the heavy bachi in the right hand, the performer produces sound by forcefully striking the strings in a sweeping motion. The foundational performance technique relies on arpeggiated strokes across multiple strings. The most frequent technique is kakibachi (scratch stroke), in which the plectrum sweeps downward in a single rapid motion from the uppermost first string across three or four strings. Conversely, kaeshibachi (return stroke) executes an upward arpeggio from the bottom string. Other specialized strokes include waribachi (divided stroke), where four strings are played in two distinct two-string pairs with a brief pause, and kakisukashi, where three or four strings are struck in an arpeggio while emphasizing two specific strings together.
Pitch and scale adjustments on the biwa are governed by initial tuning prior to performance as well as the placement and pressure exerted by the player’s left hand on the frets. Tuning is accomplished by turning the pegs located on the bent neck to adjust string tension—tightening increases pitch while loosening lowers it.
II. Typological Diversity of the Biwa
Throughout Japanese history, five distinct varieties of biwa emerged: Gakubiwa, Mosobiwa, Heikebiwa,Satsumabiwa, and Chikuzenbiwa.
Gakubiwa was the first type to arrive in Japan, integrated as an ensemble instrument within Gagaku (imperial court music). Rather than playing fluid melodies, its function was to mark time and emphasize the structural rhythm of compositions using chords and single strikes. It was played held almost horizontally. The Gakubiwa remains the largest among all biwa types, measuring approximately 100 cm in length and 40 cm in body width.
Subsequently, certain Buddhist monks began utilizing biwa accompaniment to chant scriptures while traveling throughout the country to spread Buddhist teachings. The instrument used by these blind practitioners is known as the Mosobiwa (Blind Monk Biwa). The proliferation of Mosobiwa was driven by two intertwining factors: the traditional belief that the visually impaired possessed spiritual faculties enabling them to communicate with deities and departed souls, and the practical necessity for blind individuals to seek self-reliance through priesthood. Consequently, the biwa transitioned from a purely musical instrument into a functional tool for religious missionary work. Structurally, the Mosobiwa was crafted noticeably slimmer than the Gakubiwa to ensure ease of portability during travel.
This Mosobiwa lineage underwent further development around the 13th century, giving rise to Heikyoku—the narrative performing art of reciting the military epic The Tale of the Heike accompanied by biwa. It is a military tale depicting the rise and fall of a samurai clan that, for the first time in history, entered the political arena previously dominated by the aristocracy. The instrument designed for this purpose is called the Heikebiwa, which represents a slightly scaled-down version of the courtly Gakubiwa.
During the 16th century, an era dominated by feudal samurai rule, the Satsuma domain (modern-day Kagoshima) in southern Kyushu adapted the biwa for warrior education. It was used to accompany oral recitations of battle chronicles to instill moral discipline and ethical philosophy in samurai youth. The resulting Satsumabiwa features exceptionally high frets and a massive plectrum, characterized by a dramatic and powerful performance style capable of producing heroic, striking sounds.
As history transitioned into the modern era in the mid-19th century, the Chikuzenbiwa emerged by stripping away religious doctrines from Mosobiwa to focus on heightened musicality and broader narrative storytelling. The Chikuzenbiwa gained widespread popularity as a refined accomplishment for women, developing a lyrical and elegant tonal aesthetic cultivated primarily by female performers.
III. Critical Reflections on Evolutionary Peculiarities
Upon reflecting on the historical trajectory of the Japanese biwa outlined above, two profound peculiarities stand out in its unique evolutionary process.
The first is the fundamental transformation in the instrument’s functional nature. The defining characteristic that distinguishes the biwa’s evolution in Japan from other musical instruments is that, while inherently designed as a tool for creating music, its dominant role gradually shifted toward serving as a medium for non-musical endeavors—including propagation of Buddhism, samurai moral training, and dramatic storytelling.
The second peculiar aspect lies in the shift among the primary practitioners and custodians of the instrument. The 8th-century Raden Shitan no Gogen Biwa introduced at the beginning of this essay was lavishly ornamented with mother-of-pearl and tortoiseshell inlays depicting a figure riding a camel amidst floral motifs. It functioned as a luxury craft object symbolizing the supreme wealth and authority of the reigning Emperor. Initially restricted to elite court music enjoyed exclusively by the sovereign and high nobility, the biwa eventually transformed into a vehicle for popular culture through Buddhist missionary work (Mosobiwa) and public oral storytelling (Heikebiwa and Chikuzenbiwa). This shift in custodianship from ruling elites to the general public a compelling reflection of the broader democratization of Japanese cultural history.
Conclusion
Originating in ancient Persia and transmitted through continental Asia to Japan, the biwa underwent an extraordinary, distinct evolution over its long history. Regrettably, active biwa performers today are few in number, and opportunities for the general public to experience live biwa performances remain exceedingly rare. Nevertheless, considering its remarkable socio-cultural journey, the biwa stands as a priceless cultural heritage of Japan that must be conscientiously preserved and transmitted to future generations.
By: Mayu Nomura
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