Deng Xiaoping- The man who created a new China
The 1970s saw the world enjoying a general thaw in the pervading Cold War. President Nixon and Soviet Premier Brezhnev would meet up and sign the 1972 SALT treaties as a means of halting the ongoing arms race. At a time when most of the world was looking forward to a bright future, one particular nation found itself on its crossroads of destiny. China, the most populous nation on earth, was in a condition of utter disarray. Led by an ageing Mao Zedong, the country’s leader for over two decades, the geopolitical as well as the economic vision of the country was slowly disappearing into a complete mess.
The thaw between the Soviet Union and the United States badly damaged China’s importance in the Cold War. Not only did it mean scaling down decades worth of anti-American propaganda but also the decreasing compulsion of the Soviets to give in to Chinese demands. The economy wasn’t booming either. The communist system of agriculture didn’t reap any dividends whatsoever to help the fledgling state. The farmers working in big communes could not stand up to the ambitious targets set up by the National Government. Mao Zedong needed Agricultural produce to sell overseas in return of pay for technology. In the attempt, food was forcibly snatched from starving farmers and who were instead served vegetable leaves and soup in community dining halls. The Government’s aim of high steel production too faced a roadblock as in the absence of expert engineers and craftsmen, most of the steel produced were of extreme low quality and zero value. Finally, the purge of the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976, sent China back a few decades. In a systematic attack on the intellectuals and the rich, an entire class of talented Chinese perished at the hands of local brigands.
Even as the once all powerful nation’s leader slipped in and out of consciousness towards the end of 1975, the future of China looked grim and desolate. Mao left China an extremely poor nation recovering from severe setbacks from his nearly three decade long rule. Yet 40 years later, the People’s Republic of China would surge to hold the position of the second largest GDP on the planet. From a GDP per capita of just over 170 American dollars in 1975 that was behind Bangladesh at that time, the Chinese would come to boast of a per capita of over 12,000 American dollars in 2023. However, the greatest achievement for an average Chinese person was to see their nation transform into the ‘factory of the world’. In 2022, China accounted for the manufacturing of 1 billion smartphones, which is a staggering 80% of total global output. It is also the second largest producer of pharmaceuticals and the largest car producer in the world. The People’s Republic of China managed to make otherwise luxury products cheaper and more available for the global population. At the international stage, they have begun to rival the United States like no other and are poised to surpass them in GDP by 2028.
And all of that began with the vision of one man- Deng Xiaoping.
Deng Xiaoping was born on 22nd August, 1904 in the Guang’an district of Sichuan province. His father Deng Wenming had a degree in law and political science from the University of Chengdu. His initial years were spent studying at a traditional Chinese school although he was shifted to a modern facility at the age of seven. After completing graduation from Chongqing in 1919, he participated in the Diligent Work Frugal Study Movement that took him to France along with a group of around 80 others.
During his brief stint in France, the then fifteen year old Deng worked at a Renault factory and as a fitter at the Le Creusot Iron and Steel Plant. However, France, the cultural capital of Europe would prove to be an irreplaceable asset to his political future. In June 1923, he joined the Chinese Communist Youth League and formed cordial relationships with Zhou Enlai, Chen Yi, Li Fuchun and Li Lisan, all of whom would become the future leaders of the Chinese Communist Party. His connection with communism would eventually get a boost after he got himself admitted at the Sun Yat Sen University in Moscow in 1926, then under the Soviet regime.
However, the call of his countrymen would eventually put a lid to his academic career as he found himself donning the uniform of a soldier serving in the army of Feng Yuxiang, a warlord in North Western China. Despite having several internal issues, the Communists and the Nationalists who called themselves the Kuomintang(KMT) were enjoying a thaw in their tumultuous relationship. In 1927, however soon after the arrival of Deng Xiaoping to China, the Kuomintang formally broke off their alliance with the Communists, throwing them out of areas under their rule. Feng Yuxiang crossed over to the nationalists and Deng, being an ardent supporter of communism deserted his post.
Soon after Deng began to dabble in Marxist politics in the communist headquarters of Wuhan. Later on in 1927, he eventually shifted to Shanghai, where he fomented several major rebellions against the ruling Nationalists. The Kuomintang led by General Chang Kai Shek were fueled by Western money to halt Communist advance and ruthlessly put down the protests.
Deng Xiaoping then tried his hand in the military. After leaving Shanghai in 1929, he became the chief representative of the Central Committee in Guangxi. He was known for his aggressive posturing against the Kuomintang and organised the Baise and Long Zhou rebellions. However these ambitious attacks only resulted in bloody defeats for the Communists. Chang Kai Sek managed to coax the French to lend them airpower to ensure an absolute drubbing for the ill equipped Communists. Forced to retreat to Jiangxi, Deng Xiaoping’s inability to lead an army in the field was obvious as he deserted his position leaving his army leaderless in hostile territory. This was the biggest smudge on his military career
Difficulties would continue to plague the communists as they were shelled out of Jiangxi by a large nationalist army. In the infamous long march of 1934, Deng Xiaoping found himself beside Mao Zedong as they marched for 368 days straight while suffering horrendous losses to disease and enemy attacks. Of the near 100,000 men who had left Jiangxi, less than 10,000 of them managed to reach the safety of Shaanxi. The arduous march would cost the Communists heavily in terms of manpower but at the same time, it cemented the position of Mao Zedong as the champion of the Chinese Communist Party. Deng Xiaoping too secured a high position in the Communist hierarchy
In 1937, the Japanese army attacked China thus sparking the Second Sino-Japanese war. The forces of Chang Kai Sek were of no match against the well equipped Japanese as they swept through Eastern China with relative ease, committing massive war crimes in the process. This however, helped bring the Kuomintang and the Communists under one banner. Deng Xiaoping was appointed the Political Commissar of the 129th division of the Eighth Army in 1938. He clashed with the Japanese army in Shaanxi, Henan and Heibei provinces.
However the honeymoon period of the two opposing sides of China’s political spectrum ended with the defeat of Japan in the Second World War. As the Kuomintang resumed hostilities with the Communists, Deng Xiaoping would etch his name in the history of China for his role in the Communist military. The Nationalist Army outnumbered the Communists ten to one by the end of 1946. Yet the tide was slowly turning against Chang Kai Sek. His government was plagued with corruption and millions of dollars worth of military aid were being embezzled by corrupt generals of the Kuomintang. The food meant for the army was being sold in the cities even as much of the armaments and bullets found their way into the Blackmarket. Thousands of demoralised deserters joined the Communist cause as the People’s Liberation Army enjoyed a steady rise in manpower. In a series of bloody conflicts, Mao Zedong managed to secure large tracts of territory under his rule. Deng Xiaoping would make himself distinguished in the military after his experience in the Huaihui campaign of 1948 that helped the People’s Liberation Army reach the Yangtze. He was the political Commissar of the Central Plains Field Army as they encircled the Kuomintang in Shandong inflicting heavy casualties on them. This would prove to be a decisive victory as Chang Kai Sek would end up losing American support and eventually resign a few months later in January of 1949.
As the Communists took power over China under the leadership of Mao Zedong, Deng Xiaoping too managed for himself a large part of the credit. Not only did he work in the field but also was a key propagandist who helped the ideas of Mao Zedong trickle all the way down to the average Soldier. He was also the person appointed as the leader of the Communist Party in the South West to take out the remaining bastions of the Nationalists in Guangzhou and Chongqing. By 1950, a year after Chang’s resignation, Deng Xiaoping managed to take the whole of mainland China under his control including Tibet.
Within the Communist Government, Deng found himself at the position of the Vice Premier and Deputy Chair of the Committee on Finance where he ended up serving for two years. In 1956 he became the Head of the Communist Party’s Organisation Department and member of the Central Military Commision. He was considered to be close to the then President of China Liu Shaoqi and the Premier Zhou Enlai and discussed key economic policies with them. It was then that he showed his first ever disagreement with the Five Year Plan Projects promoted by Mao Zedong. On the international stage, Deng Xiaoping was a member of a high powered committee that was sent to Moscow in 1963 to mend ties with Nikita Khrushchev, the Secretary General of the USSR. In what would be a major failure for him, Deng failed to restore Sino-Soviet relations back to the times of Stalin and a split became apparent between the two largest Communist countries in the world.
Deng’s political future would suffer a major setback after his plans of reforming the strict communist economy didn’t make the cut for Mao Zedong. In 1966, the Cultural Revolution was launched by Mao as a means of cementing his control over the masses and putting down any competitors within his party. Not only was Deng at the receiving end of a number of vocal assaults, he was also compelled to give up all administrative posts by orders from Mao Zedong. China’s most influential man didn’t support his policies. His fortunes began to decline as the horrors of the Cultural Revolution began to haunt him and his family as they were arrested by zealous Red Guards. His young son was tortured and thrown from a high building in 1968. In what would be a further fall from grace, Deng was assigned a job at a Tractor Factory in rural Jiangxi as a normal worker in 1969.
When the realisation of the true power of Mao Zedong came, Deng didn’t refrain from sending apology letters to him in a hope of recovering his trust. In a strange turn of events, Deng found himself as the successor to Mao Zedong’s legacy after his predecessor, the cancer-stricken Zhou Enlai named him as such from his deathbed. It will also be because of Zhou that Deng was brought back into politics by Mao in October 1974 as he was elected to the post of the Vice chairman of the Party. Working under the thumb of an ageing Mao Zedong, Deng Xiaoping laid the foundation of China’s future. He established the Political Research Office that was managed by intellectuals hoping for a major political and economic reform.
Yet Mao Zedong never trusted Deng fully since bringing him back to the fold eventually ostracising him to ‘external affairs’ in 1976 in a bid to remove him from the party. He also named Huo Guofeng as his successor, thus flouting the wish of the late Zhou Enlai. Guofeng even took the Vice Chairman position that was previously held by Deng. The sun finally set on Mao Zedong on 9th September 1976 and Huo Guofeng assumed office and in an act of charity, gave the position of the Vice Chairman of Party back to Deng Xiaoping in 1977. Offered an opportunity on a silver platter, Deng Xiaoping used all his political acumen to imbalance the Huo government. By 1980, Guofeng found himself banished from all leadership positions and was compelled to retire early.
This began the age of total control over China by Deng Xiaoping. The feature that seperated Deng from his predecessors was his grasp of reality. He was aware of the technological superiority of the West and was keen on bringing much of that to his homeland. He heralded an era of opening up of Chinese society that for the previous three decades had been under strict regulation by the Communist party. His methodology of the ‘Four Modernisations’ was based around China temporarily assuming the role of a ‘dormant giant’ in the stage of international politics while prioritising the development of the nation.
Many Chinese students found tickets to the US and learnt modern education from them. However, his biggest achievement was the introduction of capitalism into the Chinese economy. This led to the formation of several special economic zones that would one day make China an important part in the global supply chain. He prepared a blueprint for the development of light Industry in the country to be able to bring in revenues which could later be invested in heavier technology. Intending to decrease government control over investment, much of the funding came from banking units and consumer deposits. This meant that the fledgling industry of China could work without government interference.
In the 1980s, China was facing a major issue of low productivity due to adherence to communist principles. Rules that debarred the use of bonuses and other monetary incentives discouraged workers from going beyond their work quotas. Deng Xiaoping introduced a system of material incentives that helped multiply rural productivity. Peasants who in the past had to deposit their crops in state-owner communes were now allowed to keep a part of their produce and sell it in local markets.
He was also extremely concerned regarding the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party and tried to limit the influence of Party members. In August 1980, he paved the way ahead for the introduction of term limits for party officials to ensure that no one was allowed to sit at the top for too long. Another major problem for China in the years preceding Deng was the overgrowing population. Despite being the most populous nation in the world, China’s population was not ageing and instead was growing at an average of 1.5% every year. This meant a higher strain on consumption limiting the export abilities. In 1982, Deng introduced the ‘one-child’ policy to tackle the growing population. The government enforced forced abortions to ensure couples adhere to this rule.
At the international stage, Deng received a China that was in a state of utter confusion. A bitter border war had alienated the Soviets, their once closest ally and the war with Vietnam in 1977 was perceived by many as against the spirit of Communism. In 1982, Deng prepared a new system of governance called the ‘One country two systems’. This would prove to be an ace up his sleeve in international diplomacy. At the Sino-British Joint Declaration in 1984, Deng Xiaoping managed to secure rights to the territory of Hong Kong that was supposed to be a British colony till 1997.
The biggest test for Deng Xiaoping came during the Tiananmen Square Protests of 1989. Despite the seemingly smooth progress of China’s modernisation, a large fraction of the Communist hardliners within the party resented the Capitalist essence that was being injected into the Chinese society and economy. The death of a reformist called Hu Yaobang resulted in a mass funeral program for the deceased by a large fraction of common Chinese who were angry at the nepotism and corruption within the system. After seven weeks of protests, the People’s Liberation Army marched onto the square and neutralised the protestors with brute force resulting in thousands of casualties. Shocked by the incident, socialist hardliners began an Anti-Rightist campaign that threatened to take the nation back to the times of Mao Zedong. However, by clever manipulation and concessions, Deng managed to avert danger and wooed the hardliners to allow him with further liberalisation.
After years of service, it was getting difficult for Deng Xiaoping to continue working from his office. He gave up the position of the Chairman of the Military Commission in 1989 although he continued on to be the de facto leader of the nation despite naming Jiang Zemin as his successor. His last major masterstroke came with the Southern tour of 1992 during which he visited Guangzhou, Shenzhen and Zubei which helped him give a final confirmation of the reforms that would one day make China a global power.
His health deteriorated in 1995 and was believed to be suffering from Parkinson’s disease. On February 19th, 1997, Deng Xiaoping passed away due to lung infection. The Government announced a public mourning for him and ran several documentaries of his life on television. However, across China, Deng Xiaoping has far fewer memorials than any major Chinese leader. His bronze statue at the Lianhua Mountain park remains one of the few exceptions.
As the persona of Mao Zedong was brought back to a new generation of Chinese, Deng Xiaoping was increasingly side-lined by the top brass of the party. Outside of China, his name is hardly known by either China admirers or China haters. Yet the everlasting legacy of Deng Xiaoping continues to help his country forward.
By: Aratrik Tarafdar
Write and Win: Participate in Creative writing Contest & International Essay Contest and win fabulous prizes.
